SOME SPECIALTY AREAS OF TOXICOLOGY (APPLICATION OF TOXICOLOGY)

SOME SPECIALTY AREAS OF TOXICOLOGY (APPLICATION OF TOXICOLOGY) 1. Clinical Toxicology: (hospital setting) • Deal with emergencies such as overdoses, poisonings, attempted suicides. • Compound identification and quantification. • Sign and symptom management. • Emergency care--home poisoning. • Poison control. 2. Forensic Toxicology: (Medical Examiners office) • Medical-legal aspects of poisonings. • Identification and quantification of poisons. • Establish relationship between tissue residual level and probable cause of death. 3. Industrial Toxicology: • Estimation of worker safety based on 8 hr work day, 40 hr work week.... • Engineering of safety measures. • Air sampling, worker sampling. 4. Environmental Toxicology: • Effects of compounds on water, wildlife. • Movement of chemicals in the environment--soil, air, water. • Residual life of chemicals in the environment. 5. Biochemical and MolecularToxicology: • Determining mode of action of chemicals at the molecular level. • Effect of chemicals on DNA, cancer genes…. 6. Product development Toxicology: (Corporate setting) • Service and preclinical toxicology for product development. • Evaluation of full toxic potential of chemicals destined for drug use. • Establish safe doses for people. 7. Regulatory Toxicology: (industry and government setting) • Deciphers and analyzes toxicological data for risk estimation. • Solvent vapor thresholds in industry. • Safe level for human drugs. • Safe level of heavy metals in water. • Safe levels of pesticides. 8. Food Toxicology • Deciphers and analyzes toxicological data for risk estimation. • Solvent vapor thresholds in industry. • Safe level for human drugs. • Safe level of heavy metals in water. • Safe levels of pest

COCKROACH

Introduction Cockroach is an insect of the order Dictyoptera. The body is flattened from top to bottom and oval in outline. The male usually has two pairs of wings folded flat over the back, consisting of one outer leathery pair beneath which is folded a membranous pair, whereas the female, in some species, is wingless or has vestigial wings. Most species rarely fly but they walk very fast. The colour usually varies from light brown to black. The species vary from 2 – 3 mm to over 80 mm in length. The head is bent downward and is protected by the enlarged flanges of the thorax. The mouthparts point backward instead of forward or downward as is the case in most other insects. Their long, hair-like, highly sensitive antennae and sensory bristles enable them to detect tiny amounts of food and moisture. The cerci, sensory structures extending from the rear of the abdomen, can sense minute air movements, enabling the cockroach to rapidly detect and flee from potential danger. Most cockroaches are difficult to catch due to their soft, slippery outer skin, called the cuticle. The oily cuticle also protects them from dehydration. Some species, including the Madeira cockroach, can produce sound. The cockroach prefers a warm, humid, dark environment and is usually found in tropical or other mild climates. The insect damages more material than it consumes and emits a disagreeable odour. The diet of the roach, which includes both plant and animal products, ranges from food, paper, clothing, and books to dead insects, especially bedbugs. Of over 3500 identified species only a few are of importance to people because they have adapted to living in buildings. The most common species are: • The American cockroach (Periplaneta americana) occurs around the world. It is 35 – 40 mm in length and is shiny reddish to chocolate brown colour. It has well-developed wings, but not a good flyer. The egg case (ootheca) measures 8 – 10 mm and contains 16 eggs. It lives outdoors or in dark, heated indoor areas (e.g., basements and furnace rooms). During adult life, a period of about 1.5 years, the female deposits 50 or more oothecae that hatch after 45 days. Nymphal life lasts from 11 to 14 months. • The German cockroach (Blattella germanica) is found in most parts of the world. It is light yellowish brown and 10 – 15 mm in length, making it one of the smallest domestic cockroaches. The female produces the ootheca three days after mating and carries it for about 20 days. The egg case is light in colour, about 7 – 9 mm long and contains about 40 eggs. Three or more generations may occur yearly. • The brown-banded cockroach (Supella longipalpa) resembles the German cockroach but is slightly smaller and occurs around the world. It is 10 – 14 mm long. The egg case is 4 – 5 mm in length and contains about 16 eggs. The male has fully developed wings and is lighter in colour than the female, whose wings are short and non-functional. Both sexes have two light-coloured bands across the back. The adult life span is about 200 days, and there may be two generations annually. • The Oriental cockroach (Blatta orientalis) is considered one of the filthiest of household pests. It is found mainly in cool temperate regions. It is blackish and 20 – 27 mm long, with a life cycle similar to that of the American cockroach.. The egg case is 10 – 12 mm long and contains 16 – 18 eggs. The male has short, fully developed wings, and the female has vestigial wings. • The Australian cockroach (Periplaneta australasiae) occurs mainly in tropical and subtropical areas. It is similar to the American cockroach, but smaller (31 – 37 mm long) and darker. It has a pale yellow stripe on each forewing extending for about one-third its length. The egg case contains about 22 – 24 eggs. Life Cycle Courtship patterns vary with the species. When the American cockroach is ready to mate, the female produces a chemical odour, or pheromone, that attracts males. The males flap their wings and probe for females with their abdomens when they sense the pheromone; eventually, they back into a female and mating ensues. Other species have more elaborate mating displays, including hissing noises, bobbing and waving of the abdomen, or nibbling. The males of one African species form dominance hierarchies, and the females preferentially mate with the dominant male. Cockroaches are relatively primitive, having only three stages in their life cycle: egg, nymph and adult. The female deposits its eggs in groups surrounded by a leathery, bean-shaped egg case or capsule called an ootheca. Some species, such as the German cockroach, carry the ootheca for several weeks attached to the back end of the body. Most others deposit the ootheca after one or two days. Oothecae are very distinctive and can frequently be used to determine the species present. Depending on the species, temperature and humidity, the eggs hatch after 1 – 3 months. The young cockroaches, or nymphs, are wingless, and usually only a few millimetres long; they are white on hatching but darken within a few hours.They undergo gradual metamorphosis—that is, they grow and mature in stages, each separated by a moult of the exoskeleton. Each successive stage, or instar, comes to resemble the adult insect more and more. They are fully grown after several months to more than a year, depending on the species. The adults may or may not possess wings, Behaviour Pest cockroaches live in close association with people. They are tropical in origin but in the temperate zones most species live in parts of houses and other buildings where warmth, moisture and food are adequate. Cockroaches usually live in groups. They are mostly active at night; in the daytime they hide in cracks and crevices in walls, door frames and furniture, and in secure places in bathrooms, cupboards, steam tunnels, animal houses, basements, televisions, radios and other electric devices, drains and sewer systems. If the lights are turned on in an infested kitchen at night the cockroaches will run from dishes, utensils, working surfaces and the floor towards shelter. Cockroaches eat a great variety of food, including all food used for human consumption. They prefer starchy and sugary materials. They sip milk and nibble at cheese, meats, pastry, grain products, sugar and sweet chocolate. They also feed on cardboard, book bindings, ceiling boards containing starch, the sized inner lining of shoe soles, their own cast-off skins, dead and crippled cockroaches, fresh and dried blood, excrement, sputum, and the fingernails and toenails of babies and sleeping or sick persons. Dispersal Mass migrations have been reported for some species, apparently resulting from overcrowding. The migrants move into new areas by crawling or flying. They commonly enter houses in boxes of bottled drinks and bags of potatoes, onions or other foodstuffs that have become infested in poorly maintained food-stores. Long-distance transportation of the pests can occur on aircraft, ships or other vehicles. Public Health Importance • Nuisance: cockroaches are important pests because they spread filth and ruin food, fabrics and book-bindings. They disgorge portions of their partially digested food at intervals and drop faeces. They also discharge a nauseous secretion both from their mouths and from glands opening on the body which give a long-lasting, offensive cockroach smell to areas or food visited by them. • Diseases: cockroaches move freely from building to building or from drains, gardens, sewers and latrines to human habitations. Because they feed on human faeces as well as human food they can spread germs that cause disease. Cockroaches are not usually the most important cause of a disease, but like houseflies they may play a supplementary role in the spread of some diseases. They are proven or suspected carriers of the organisms causing: diarrhoea, dysentery, cholera, leprosy, plague, typhoid fever and viral diseases such as poliomyelitis. In addition they carry the eggs of parasitic worms and may cause allergic reactions, including dermatitis, itching, swelling of the eyelids and more serious respiratory conditions. Control Measures Effective control is easier in temperate climates (where cockroach populations cannot survive outdoors in winter) than in humid and warm areas. The key to control is cleanliness, which may be difficult in houses where there are children and domestic animals. In isolated homes, control is easier to achieve than in apartments where cockroaches may have easy access from adjacent quarters. Reinfestation occurs from outdoors in warm areas, or along heating ducts and water pipes in apartments, or from groceries or luggage brought from cockroach infested areas. Cockroaches may even sometimes be found in very clean houses, but are unlikely to establish colonies. The presence of several sizes of nymphs and oothecae is an indication of a well-established colony. Infestations can be detected by searching behind skirting-boards, boxes, furniture and other common hiding places. At night, cockroaches are easily detected using light. Heavy infestations of cockroaches can be dealt with by chemical control measures, followed by environmental management to deprive the insects of food and shelter. Low numbers can be effectively controlled by baits or traps. Environmental management • Cleanliness and Hygiene: food should be stored in tightly covered containers in screened cabinets or ferigerators. All areas have to be kept clean so that no fragments of food or organic matter remain. Rubbish bins should be securely covered and emptied frequently, preferably daily. Basements and areas underneath buildings should be kept dry and free of accessible food and water. • Reduction of Accessibility: Groceries, laundry, dirty clothing, egg crates and furniture should be checked before being taken into a building. In some instances, accessibility to buildings can be reduced by closing gaps in floors and door frames. Openings for drain water and sewer pipes, drinking-water and electricity cables should also be closed. Chemical Control Cockroaches are difficult to control with insecticides for several reasons, one of which is that they may become resistant to commonly used compounds. Moreover, many insecticides are repellent to them and are therefore avoided. Chemical control gives only temporary relief and, wherever possible, it should be accompanied by environmental sanitation and house improvement. Insecticides are applied to the resting and hiding places as residual sprays and insecticidal dusts. Such applications are effective for periods ranging from several days to months, depending on the insecticide and the substrate on which it is deposited. Insecticides can also be combined with attractants as toxic baits. Scientific Classification Cockroaches make up the order Dictyoptera, which contains five families. The American cockroach is Periplaneta americana, and the Oriental cockroach is Blatta orientalis, both in the family Blattidae. The German cockroach, Blatella germanica, the Asian cockroach, Blatella asahinai, and the brownbanded cockroach, Supella longipalpa, are in the family Blatellidae. The Madeira cockroach is Leucophaea maderae, the Brazilian cockroach is Blaberus giganteus, and the Madagascar hissing cockroach is Gromphadorina portentosa, all in the family Blaberidae. The remaining families are the Cryptocercidae and the Polyphagidae.

love story-out of health topics

In my life, first time I saw a dream it is just imaginary;I will say in brief plz read it give me a comment whether good or bad as well as tell whether this will happen in our life ok. One man of Punjab,(is an army) when come in nepal married a women gave a birth nam nishan . n dat Punjabi man is rich so his brother hav eye on his brother money so he killed both Punjabi man n nepali women, unfortunately nishan life is safe because he is in nepal. his mama take nishan 2 his house bt due 2 punjabi man brother nishan is rejected,so his life growing in da under of his mama nishan think mama as papa.his father has a dream dat nishan will b an army where his mother has a dream dat he will b doctor.so his mama force 2 take a martial art training (although nishan aim is 2 b singer )n think 2 read in sagarmata college in scholarship. Nishan takes da training of kyosin karate up 2 brown belt bt he didn’t get scholarship so he read in new galaxy. in dat time he love 2 girl of other college bt girls bt after some time one girl go 2 japan n other got married .he is reject in army because he hav one health problem which cant b cured as well as he didn’t get admission In mbbs. Dats why he admitted in bph in la grande.in first time he became first so all frn likes him bt when nishan became fail after some time den he hated by all frn .in dis college he love 1 girl bt she didn’t lve him because nishan isn’t so handsome n he is younger about 1 yrs then dat girl . aftersome yrs he leave me n dis earth due 2 depression. Afterdat I get up 4rm da bed.

Cohort Study

General outline on Cohort Study:- • Definition of cohort study A type of analytic study which groups of individuals defined on the basis of their exposure status is followed to assess the occurrence of disease. • What is Cohort? Cohort is defined as a group of people who share a common characteristic or experience within a defined time period. Example; Birth cohort, Occupation cohort, Exposure cohort, Marriage cohort, etc. • Types of Cohort Studies 1. Prospective Cohort Studies: Concurrent cohort: A prospective cohort study is one in which the outcome has not yet occurred at the time the investigation begins in the present and continue into future. 2. Retrospective Cohort Study: A retrospective or historical cohort study is one in which the outcomes have all occurred before the start of investigation, the investigator goes back in time. 3 Retro-Prospective Study In this type of study, both the retrospective and Prospective elements are combined. The cohort is identified from past records and it’s assessed of data for outcome. The same cohort is followed up prospectively into future for further assessment of outcomes. • General consideration while selection of cohorts o Both the cohorts are free of the disease. o Both the groups should equally susceptible to disease o Both the groups should be comparable o Diagnostic and eligibility criteria for the disease should be defined well in advance. • Steps of carrying out a cohorts study 1. Selection of Study subjects. 2. Obtaining data on exposures. 3. Selection of comparison groups. 4. Follow-up 5. Analysis and interpretation

FORENSIC SCIENCE

1. FORENSIC SCIENCE History & Scope 2. Forensic Science o science occupies unique role in criminal justice system  based on scientist’s ability to supply accurate and objective info that reflects the events that have occurred at a crime scene o forensic science in broadest definition is application of science to law 3. FORENSIC SCIENCE o is the application of science to the criminal and civil laws that are enforced by police agencies in a criminal justice system 4. History – Early Developments o China – 3 rd century  A Collection of Criminal Cases  outlined use of experimentation to defy claim of woman saying husband died in accidental fire  first to recognize potential of fingerprints for identification 5. Initial Scientific Developments o between 1775 and 1806 many advances in detecting various poisons o Mathieu Orfila (1814)  published first scientific treatise on detection of poisons and their effects on animals  established forensic toxicology as a legitimate scientific endeavor  Orfila now recognized as “father of forensic toxicology” 6. Late 19 th Century Progress o officials beginning to apply knowledge from many scientific disciplines to study of crime o Alphonse Bertillon (1879)  anthropometry – systematic procedure that involved taking a series of body measurements to establish identity  (replaced by fingerprints in early 1900’s)  “father of criminal identification” 7. Late 19 th Century Progress o Francis Henry Galton (1892)  first definitive study of fingerprints  developed methodology of classifying them for filing  published Finger Prints containing statistical proof supporting uniqueness of fingerprints as personal identification 8. Late 19 th Century Progress o Hans Gross (1893)  studied and developed principles of criminal investigation  Criminal Investigation  detailed assistance investigators could expect from fields of microscopy, chemistry, physics, mineralogy, zoology, botany, anthropometry, and fingerprinting 9. Late 19 th Century Progress o Sherlock Holmes  although fictional, author Sir Arthur Conan Doyle had considerable influence on popularizing scientific crime detection methods  first to apply serology, fingerprinting, firearms identification, and questioned document examination  long before these were valued and accepted by real life criminal investigators 10. 20 th Century Breakthroughs o Dr. Karl Lansteiner (1901)  discovered blood can be grouped into categories o Dr. Leone Lattes (1915)  developed simple procedure for determining blood group of a dried blood stain 11. 20 th Century Breakthroughs o Edmond Locard  took Gross’ principles and demonstrated how they could be incorporated into a workable crime laboratory  1910 – persuaded Lyons police dept. to give him 2 attic rooms and 2 assistants to start a police laboratory  eventually became founder and director of the Institute of Criminalistics at the University of Lyons 12. 20 th Century Breakthroughs o Edmond Locard  Locard’s Exchange Principle  when two objects come into contact with each other, a cross transfer of materials occurs  therefore, every criminal can be connected to the crime  however, we may not have the technology to see, collect or process all the materials that have transferred 13. 20 th Century Breakthroughs o Dr. Walter C. McCrone  world’s preeminent microscopist  applied microscopy to analytical problems o Colonel Calvin Goddard  refined techniques of firearms examination by using comparison microscope 14. Modern Scientific Advances o Sir Alec Jeffreys (1984)  developed first DNA profiling test as a method of personal identification  can be used to prove either guilt or innocence 15. Modern Scientific Advances o Computerized Databases  compare evidence at a scene to thousands of pieces of similar information  used for fingerprints (AFIS), markings on bullets and shell casings, and DNA 16. Scope of Forensic Science o Crime Laboratories  vary by country  usu. at least one dedicated facility offering forensic science services  in US- many local, regional and state labs  FBI runs a national lab in Virginia 17. Scope of Forensic Science  basic units of a “full service” lab  physical science - applies principles of chemistry, physics and geology to evidence  biology – DNA, bloodstains, hair & fibers, botanical materials  firearms – examines firearms and ammunition, clothing and other objects for gun shot residue  document examination – handwriting, typewriting, paper, ink  photography – examines and records the physical evidence, preps exhibits for courtrooms 18. Scope of Forensic Science  additional services/units  toxicology – examines body fluids and organs to determine presence or absence of drugs and poisons  latent fingerprint – visualizes the “invisible” prints not seen by the naked eye, records  polygraph – lie detector, staffed more by criminal investigator  voiceprint analysis – uses spectrograph to create visual display from speech, used for identification  crime scene investigation – evidence collection unit 19. Scope of Forensic Science  specialized services/units  forensic psychiatry – examines relationship between human behavior and legal proceedings  forensic odontology – identify victims through dental evidence if body is left in unrecognizable state, bite mark analysis  forensic engineering – concerned with failure analysis, accident reconstruction, causes and origins of fires and explosions  forensic computer and digital analysis – identifying, collecting, preserving and examining info from digital devices

Natural history of disease

Natural history of disease: • Natural history of a disease refers to the course of the disease over a period of time, unaffected by treatment. • It signifies the way in which a disease evolves over time from the earliest stage of its prepathogenesis phase to its termination as recovery, disability or death in the absent of treatment or prevention. • It is a necessary framework, to understand the pathogenetic chain of events for a particular disease and for the application of preventive measures. • It is customary to describe the natural history of disease as consisting of two phases: prepathogenesis(i.e. the process in the environment) and pathogenesis(i.e. the process in man) 1. Prepathgenesis phase: This refers to the period preliminary to the onset of disease in man. The disease agent has not yet entered man, but the factors which favour its interaction with the human host already exist in the environment. The mere presence of agent, host and favourable environmental factors in the prepathogenesis period is not sufficient to start the disease in man. What is required is an interaction of three factors to initiate the disease process in man. 2. Pathogenesis phase: • The pathogenesis phase begins with the entry of the disease agent in the susceptible human host. • The disease agent multiplies and induces tissue and physiological changes, the disease progresses through a period of incubation and later through early and late pathogenesis. The final outcome of the disease may be recovery, disability or death.

Human rights

Introduction about Human rights:- Socio-political and economic conditions required by human beings in order to live a safe, secure, dignified, civilized and progressive life with all-round development is called Human rights. Human rights are conceived as universal and egalitarian, with all people having equal rights by virtue of being human. These rights may exist as natural rights or as legal rights, in both national and international law. The modern concept of human rights developed during the early Modern period where European philosophers developed theories of natural law that influenced the adoption of documents such as the bill of Rights of England, the bill of Rights in the United States, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in France. History of Human Rights:- Non-Legally Binding:-  Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)  Declaration on the Right to Development (1986)  Declaration on the Protection of all Persons from Enforced Disappearance (1992) Legally Binding:-  International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights  International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Principal Human rights:- 1. Universality and Inalienability: Human rights are universal because everyone is born with and possesses the same rights, regardless of where they live, their gender or race, or their religious, cultural or ethnic background. People’s rights can never be taken away so they are also Inalienable. The universality of human rights is encompassed in the words of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights: “All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.” 2. Indivisibility and Interdependent: Human rights are indivisible. Whether they relate to civil, cultural, economic, political or social issues, human rights are inherent to the dignity of every human person. Consequently, all human rights have equal status, and cannot be positioned in a hierarchical order. Denial of one right invariably impedes enjoyment of other rights. Thus, the right of everyone to an adequate standard of living cannot be compromised at the expense of other rights, such as the right to health or the right to education. As well as Human rights are interdependent. Each one contributes to the realization of a person’s human dignity through the satisfaction of his or her developmental, physical, psychological and spiritual needs. The fulfillment of one right often depends, wholly or in part, upon the fulfillment of others. For instance, fulfillment of the right to health may depend, in certain circumstances, on fulfillment of the right to development, to education or to information. 3. Equality and Non-discrimination: All individuals are equal as human beings and by virtue of the inherent dignity of each human person. No one, therefore, should suffer discrimination on the basis of race, colour, ethnicity, gender, age, language, sexual orientation, religion, political or other opinion, national, social or geographical origin, disability, property, birth or other status as established by human rights standards. 4. Participation and Inclusion: All people have the right to participate in and access information relating to the decision-making processes that affect their lives and well-being. Rights-based approaches require a high degree of participation by communities, civil society, minorities, women, young people, indigenous peoples and other identified groups. 5. Accountability and Rule of Law: States and other duty-bearers are answerable for the observance of human rights. In this regard, they have to comply with the legal norms and standards enshrined in international human rights instruments. Where they fail to do so, aggrieved rights-holders are entitled to institute proceedings for appropriate redress before a competent court or other adjudicator in accordance with the rules and procedures provided by law. Individuals, the media, civil society and the international community play important roles in holding governments accountable for their obligation to uphold human rights. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR):- During World War II (1939-1945) Period of Nazi dictator Adolf Hitler, the Nazis murdered millions of Jews and hundreds of thousands of others, including Roma (Gypsies), homosexuals, Soviet prisoners of war (POWs), and the mentally ill in gas chambers, by firing squad, and other methods. The world had never faced such monumental crimes, and the Allied forces that were victorious in World War II set out to ensure that such a thing could never happen again. In the waning days of the war, four Allied nations—China, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), the United Kingdom, and the United States—began working to establish a representative world body with a mandate to maintain world peace. Their efforts culminated in the birth of the United Nations (UN) in 1945. Eleanor Roosevelt (wife of Former US president, Franklin D. Roosevelt), the then 1st lady of the USA, put forth the concept of human rights for all. Two years later; UDHR is declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10 December 1948(now celebrated annually as Human Rights Day) at the Palias de Chaillot in Paris by a vote of 48 in favor, 0 against, with 8 abstentions {Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR), Czechoslovakia , Poland, Ukrainian SSR, USSR , as well Yugoslavia , South Africa and Saudi Arabia}. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was prepared by the Commission on Human Rights of the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) of the United Nations. French jurist and Nobel laureate René Cassin was the declaration’s principal author of the UDHR. Now, the declaration has been translated into at least 375 languages and dialects. UDHR has been building on precedents set by the British Magna Carta (1215), the French Declaration of the Rights of Man (1789), and the United States Bill of Rights (1791), the Universal Declaration also reflected the events of the 1930s and 1940s, particularly the Nazi Holocaust. Reports of Nazi atrocities shocked people around the world and gave momentum to an effort to codify human rights in international law. Preamble:- Universal Declaration begins with a preamble consisting of 7 paragraph followed by a statement “proclaiming” the Declaration; 7 paragraphs include:- First: It asserts that the recognition of human dignity of all people is the foundation of justices and peace in the world. Second: It observes that disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind and that the four freedoms: freedom of speech, belief, freedom from want, and freedom from fear. Third: States that people are not compelled to rebellion against tyranny; human rights should be protected by rule of law. Fourth: Relates human rights to promote the development of friendly relations between nations Fifth: It links the declaration back to the UN charter which reaffirms faith in fundamental human rights and dignity and worth of the human person. Sixth: It notes that all members of the UN have pledged themselves to achieve ,in cooperation with the UN, the promotion of universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedom. Seventh: It observes that “a common understanding” of rights and freedoms is of “the greatest importance” for the full realization of that pledge. Articles of declaration:- Consists 30 articles; elaborated in subsequent international treaties, regional human right instruments, national constitutions and law. Some articles of declaration: Articles 1:- states about right to equality. Articles 2:- prohibits all sorts of discriminations. Articles 3:- right to life, liberty and security. Articles 4:- prohibits slavery and salves trade. More Human Rights from Universal Declaration:-  No slavery  No torture  Equality before the law  Freedom of movement  Right to marry  Freedom of thought, conscience, religion  Right to work  Right to form trade unions  Right to food, clothing, housing, medical care  Right to education The universal declaration of human right:- 7 provisions; which are as follows:  Everyone is born equal and they have equal prestige and right.  No one should be discriminated on the basic of caste, colour, sex, language, political affiliation, dissention, nationality or birth, wealth, social background and other conditions.  Everyone has right to life, liberty, education and equality before the law.  They have right to move freely, form association, follow religious, have information and adopt a nationality.  Everyone has right to defend oneself in the court of law.  All kinds of exploitations such as slavery, serfdom, human trafficking, detention, exile and discrimination by law are forbidden.  The state should bear responsibility to provide for health care and education for women and children. Human Rights Conventions:- Numerous treaties (pieces of legislation) have been offered at the international level. They are generally known as human rights instruments. Some of the most significant, referred to (with ICCPR and ICESCR) as "the seven core treaties", are: • Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (entered into force in 1951);  International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (entered into force in 1969);  Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (entered into force in 1981)  Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (entered into force in 1987);  Convention on the Rights of the Child (entered into force in 1990  International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of their Families (adopted in 1990, not yet in force) What is Genocide? The convention defines genocide as any act committed with the idea of destroying in whole or in part a national, ethnic, racial or religious group. This includes such acts as: ◦ Killing members of the group ◦ Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group ◦ Deliberately inflicting conditions calculated to physically destroy the group (the whole group or even part of the group) ◦ Forcefully transferring children of the group to another group How is genocide punished?  By a court in the country where it was committed or  By an international court (such as the International Court of Justice)  No immunity from persecution for genocide Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW):-  Called “The Women’s Bill of Rights”  Demands equality for women in the civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights.  Women should have equal education, employment, health, economic, and social benefits  Countries must eliminate stereotypes and prejudices based on ideas of women’s inferiority  US has not ratified due to reproductive rights (access to birth control and abortion) Elimination of Racial Discrimination (1969):-  Defines racial discrimination  Demands that countries change laws that create or perpetuate discrimination  Sets up international monitoring system called the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD) Convention against Torture (1985):-  Defines torture  All states required to prevent torture  No justification for torture ever  No evidence admitted to trial if it came from torture  Refugees can’t be forced to return to country that tortured them Convention on the Rights of the Child:-  Ratified by every country in world except 2  Basic human rights that children have everywhere  Survival, develop to fullest  Protection from harmful influence, abuse, and exploitation  Standards for education, health care Humanitarian organizations working in Nepal:-  National human right commission: ◦ One of the constitutional organ ◦ Head of office:-chief commissioner ◦ Part and articles of interim constitution-063  Parts:-15  Article:- 131-132  Amnesty International(Nongovernmental Organizations ; Founded in the United Kingdom in 1961)  INSEC  UN Human Right References:- 1. United Nations 2. United Nations Cyber School Bus 3. Google search